Chapter 10 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

The Crisis Of The Empire And The Later Mughals

The Mughal Empire, after reaching its zenith, faced significant crises in the late 17th century, exacerbated by Emperor Aurangzeb's prolonged Deccan wars which drained military and financial resources. Under his successors, imperial administration weakened, and the authority of provincial governors (subadars) and powerful mansabdars grew. These governors often controlled both political and military administration, consolidating power in their regions and reducing revenue remittances to the capital. Peasant and zamindar rebellions, fueled by increased taxes or the ambitions of powerful chieftains, further destabilized the empire. The later Mughal emperors proved incapable of reversing the shift of political and economic power to provincial authorities and local leaders. The invasions of Nadir Shah in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali's subsequent raids further weakened the empire. Internal factionalism among nobles, divided into Iranis and Turanis, also contributed to the instability, leading to the assassination or blinding of several Mughal emperors.

Emergence Of New States

With the decline of Mughal imperial authority, provincial governors, subadars, and prominent zamindars consolidated their power, leading to the fragmentation of the empire into independent regional states. These states broadly fall into three categories: (1) former Mughal provinces that maintained formal ties with the emperor, such as Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad; (2) states that enjoyed considerable autonomy as watan jagirs under the Mughals, including Rajput principalities; and (3) states that seized independence from the Mughals through armed struggle, like those of the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats.

The Old Mughal Provinces

Hyderabad

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, a powerful Mughal noble and governor of the Deccan, established Hyderabad state in 1724. He consolidated political and financial control over the Deccan, effectively becoming an independent ruler while maintaining formal ties with the Mughal emperor. He brought in skilled administrators from North India, appointed his own mansabdars, and granted jagirs. Hyderabad constantly contended with the Marathas and local Telugu warrior chiefs and faced competition from the growing British influence on the Coromandel coast.

Awadh

Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khan founded the state of Awadh in 1722. As the subadar, diwan, and faujdar, he managed the province's political, financial, and military affairs. He reduced Mughal influence by decreasing the number of Mughal appointees, reducing jagir sizes, and appointing his loyalists. He also seized Rajput zamindaris and Afghan territories in Rohilkhand. The state relied on loans from local bankers and merchants, selling tax collection rights through a system called ijaradari, which allowed revenue farmers considerable freedom and increased the influence of moneylenders and bankers in state revenue management.

Bengal

Murshid Quli Khan gradually gained autonomy from Mughal control in Bengal, holding the office of naib (deputy) but effectively controlling all gubernatorial powers. He reformed revenue administration by transferring Mughal jagirdars and reassessing revenues, collecting taxes strictly in cash, which forced many zamindars to borrow from bankers and sell their lands. This period saw a close connection between the state and bankers, with the banking house of Jagat Seth flourishing under Alivardi Khan (1740-1756).

These three states (Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal) shared common features: they were suspicious of the Mughal jagirdari system, employed revenue farming (ijaradari), and developed strong relationships with rich bankers and merchants.

The Watan Jagirs Of The Rajputs

Many Rajput rulers, particularly from Amber and Jodhpur, served the Mughals with distinction, enjoying considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs. In the 18th century, they sought to expand their territories into adjacent regions. Rulers like Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber held governorships in rich provinces like Gujarat and Malwa. They also annexed neighboring territories. Sawai Jai Singh founded the city of Jaipur and constructed astronomical observatories known as Jantar Mantar. However, Maratha campaigns into Rajasthan from the 1740s onwards checked their further expansion.

Seizing Independence

The Sikhs

The organization of the Sikhs into a political community under Guru Gobind Singh and later Banda Bahadur laid the groundwork for regional state-building in Punjab. After Banda Bahadur's execution in 1716, the Sikhs organized themselves into jathas and misls, with their collective forces known as the dal khalsa. They held collective decision-making assemblies called gurmatas. They introduced a protection system called rakhi, offering security to cultivators in exchange for a tax. The Khalsa, believing in their destiny to rule, declared sovereignty by striking coins and established their own administration. Maharaja Ranjit Singh later reunited these groups and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.

The Marathas

Shivaji (1627-1680) established a strong Maratha kingdom through sustained opposition to Mughal rule, supported by warrior families and peasant-pastoralists (kunbis). Power eventually shifted to the Peshwas (chief ministers), making Poona the capital. The Marathas developed an effective military organization, bypassing fortified Mughal positions and raiding cities. Between 1720 and 1761, they expanded their influence, seizing Malwa and Gujarat and becoming overlords of the Deccan. Their campaigns extended into Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengal, Orissa, and southern India, where they collected tribute (chauth and sardeshmukhi). These military activities, however, created enemies, leading to a lack of support during the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. The Marathas also established an effective administrative system, encouraging agriculture and trade, leading to the prosperity of cities like Ujjain and Indore.

The Jats

The Jats consolidated their power in the late 17th and 18th centuries, acquiring control over territories west of Delhi under their leader Churaman. By the 1680s, they dominated the region between Delhi and Agra. Towns like Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important trading centers under Jat influence. Under Suraj Mal, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state, with its fort considered one of the strongest in the region. The Bharatpur palace complex at Dig, with its elaborate garden palace, combined architectural styles from Amber and Agra.